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Section 1 - The Two Factors of a Commodity: Use-Value and Value Section 2 - The two-fold Character of the Labour Embodied in Commodities Section 3 - The Form of Value or Exchange-Value. Elementary or Accidental Form of Value. The Two Poles of the Expression of Value: Relative Form and Equivalent Form 2. The Relative Form of Value. The Nature and Import of this Form b. Quantitative Determination of Relative Value.
The Equivalent Form of Value 4. The Elementary Form of Value Considered as a Whole. The Expanded Relative Form of Value 2. The Particular Equivalent Form 3. Defects of the Total or Expanded Form of Value. The Altered Character of the Form of Value 2. The Interdependent Development of the Relative Form of Value, and of the Equivalent Form 3.
Transition from the General Form of Value to the Money-Form. Section 4 - The Fetishism of Commodities and the Secret thereof. Our dissertation on karl mar must therefore begin with the analysis of a commodity. A commodity is, in the first place, an object outside us, a thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of some sort or another. The nature of such wants, whether, for instance, they spring from the stomach or from fancy, makes no difference. It is an assemblage of many properties, and may therefore be of use in various ways.
To discover the various uses of things is the work of history. The diversity of these measures has its origin partly in the diverse nature of the objects to be measured, partly in convention. The utility of a thing makes it a use value. Being limited by the physical properties of the commodity, it has no existence apart from that commodity. A commodity, such as iron, corn, or a diamond, is therefore, so far as it is a material thing, a use value, something useful.
This property of a commodity is independent of dissertation on karl mar amount of labour required to appropriate its useful qualities. When treating of use value, we always assume to be dealing with definite quantities, dissertation on karl mar, such as dozens of watches, yards of linen, or tons of iron.
The use values of commodities furnish the material for a special study, that of the commercial knowledge of commodities. In the form of society we are about to consider, they are, in addition, the material depositories of exchange value. Exchange value, at first sight, presents itself as a quantitative relation, dissertation on karl mar, as the proportion in dissertation on karl mar values in use of one sort are exchanged for those of another sort, [6] a relation constantly changing with time and place.
Hence exchange value appears to be something accidental and purely relative, and consequently an intrinsic value, i. A given commodity, e. Instead of one exchange value, the wheat has, therefore, a great many. Therefore, first: the valid exchange values of a given commodity express something equal; secondly, exchange value, generally, is only the mode of expression, the phenomenal form, of something contained in it, yet distinguishable from it. Let us take two commodities, e. The proportions in which they are exchangeable, whatever those proportions may be, can always be represented by an equation in which a given quantity of corn is equated to some quantity of iron: e.
What does this equation tell us? It tells us that in two different things — in 1 quarter of corn and x cwt. of iron, there exists in equal quantities something common to both. The two things must therefore be equal to a third, dissertation on karl mar, which in itself is neither the one nor the other. Each of them, so far as it is exchange value, must therefore be reducible to this third. A simple geometrical illustration will make this clear. In order to calculate and compare the dissertation on karl mar of rectilinear figures, we decompose them into triangles.
But the area of the triangle itself is expressed by something totally different from its visible figure, namely, by half the product of the base multiplied by the altitude. In the same way the exchange values of commodities must be capable of being expressed in terms of something common to them all, of which thing they represent a greater or less quantity.
Such properties claim our attention only in so far as they affect the utility of those commodities, dissertation on karl mar, make them use values, dissertation on karl mar. But the exchange of commodities is evidently an act characterised by a total abstraction from use value. Then one use value is just as good as another, provided only it be present in sufficient quantity.
Or, as old Barbon says. There is no difference or distinction in things of equal value As use values, commodities are, above all, of different qualities, but as exchange values they are merely different quantities, dissertation on karl mar, and consequently do not contain an atom of use value. If then we leave out of consideration the dissertation on karl mar value of commodities, they have only one common property left, that of being products of labour.
But even the product of labour itself has undergone a change in our hands. If we make abstraction from its use value, we make abstraction at the same time from the material elements and shapes that make the product a use value; we see in it no longer a table, a house, yarn, or any other useful thing.
Its existence as a material thing is put out of sight. Neither can it any longer be regarded as the product of the labour of the joiner, the mason, the spinner, or of any other definite kind dissertation on karl mar productive labour.
Along with the useful qualities of the products themselves, we put out of sight both the useful character of the various kinds of labour embodied in them, dissertation on karl mar, and the concrete forms of that labour; there is nothing left but what is common to them all; all are reduced to one and the same sort of labour, human labour in the abstract.
Let us now consider the residue of each of these products; it consists of the same unsubstantial reality in each, a mere congelation of homogeneous human labour, of labour power expended without regard to the mode of its expenditure. All that these things now tell us is, dissertation on karl mar, that human labour power has been expended in their production, that human labour is embodied in them.
When looked at as crystals of this social substance, common to them all, they are — Values. We have seen that when commodities dissertation on karl mar exchanged, their exchange value manifests itself as something totally independent of their use value.
But if we abstract from their use value, there remains their Value as defined above. Therefore, the common substance that manifests itself in the exchange value of commodities, whenever they are exchanged, is their value.
The progress of our investigation will show that exchange value is the only form in which the value of commodities can manifest itself or be expressed. For the present, however, we have to consider the nature of value independently of this, its form.
A use value, or useful article, therefore, has value only because human labour in the abstract has been embodied or materialised in it. How, then, is the magnitude of this value to be measured? Plainly, by the quantity of the value-creating substance, the labour, contained in the article.
The quantity of labour, however, is measured dissertation on karl mar its duration, and labour time in its turn finds its standard in weeks, days, and hours. Some dissertation on karl mar might think that if the value of a commodity is determined by the quantity of labour spent on it, dissertation on karl mar, the more idle and unskilful the labourer, the more valuable would his commodity be, because more time would be required in its production.
The labour, however, that forms the substance of value, dissertation on karl mar, is homogeneous human labour, expenditure of one uniform labour power. The total labour power of society, which is embodied in the sum total of the values of all commodities produced by that society, counts here as one homogeneous mass of human labour power, composed though it be of innumerable individual units. Each of these units is the same as any other, so far as it has the character of the average labour power of society, and takes effect as such; that is, so far as it requires for producing a commodity, no more time than is needed on an average, no more than is socially necessary.
The labour time socially necessary is that required to produce an article under the normal conditions of production, and with the average degree of skill and intensity prevalent at the time. The introduction of power-looms into England probably reduced by one-half the labour required to weave a given quantity of yarn into cloth.
We see then that that which determines the magnitude of the value of any article is the amount of labour socially necessary, or the labour time socially necessary for its production, dissertation on karl mar. The value of one commodity is to the value of any other, as the labour time necessary for the production of the one is to that necessary for the production of the other.
The value of a commodity would therefore remain constant, if the labour time required for its production also remained constant. But the latter changes with every variation in the productiveness of labour. This productiveness is determined by various circumstances, amongst others, by the average amount of skill of the workmen, the state of science, and the degree of its practical application, the social organisation of production, the extent and capabilities of the means of production, and by physical conditions.
For example, the same amount of labour in favourable seasons is embodied in 8 bushels of corn, and in unfavourable, only in four. The same labour extracts from rich mines more metal than from poor mines. Consequently much labour is represented in a small compass. Jacob doubts whether gold has ever been paid for at its full value. This applies still more to diamonds.
With richer mines, the same quantity of labour would embody itself in more diamonds, and their value would fall. If we could succeed at a small expenditure of labour, in converting carbon into diamonds, their value might fall below that of bricks.
In general, the greater the productiveness of labour, the less is the labour time required for the production of an article, the less is the amount of labour crystallised in that article, dissertation on karl mar, and the less is its value; and vice versâthe less the productiveness of labour, the greater is the labour time required for the dissertation on karl mar of an article, and the greater is its value.
The value of a commodity, therefore, varies directly as the quantity, and inversely as the productiveness, of the labour incorporated in it. A thing can be a use value, without having value. This is the case whenever its utility to man is not due to labour. A thing can be useful, dissertation on karl mar, and the product of human labour, without being a commodity.
Whoever directly satisfies his wants with the produce of his own labour, creates, indeed, use values, but not commodities. In order to produce the latter, he must not only produce use values, but use values for others, social use values. And not only for others, without more. The mediaeval peasant produced quit-rent-corn for his feudal lord and tithe-corn for his parson. But neither the quit-rent-corn nor the tithe-corn became commodities by reason of the fact that they had been produced for others.
To become a commodity a product must be transferred to another, whom it will serve as a use value, by means of an exchange. If the thing is useless, so is the labour contained in it; the labour does not count as labour, and therefore creates no value. At first sight a commodity presented itself to us as a complex of two things — use value and exchange value.
Karl Marx on Alienation
, time: 1:58Economic Manuscripts: Capital Vol. I - Chapter One
Get 24⁄7 customer support help when you place a homework help service order with us. We will guide you on how to place your essay help, proofreading and editing your draft – fixing the grammar, spelling, or formatting of your paper easily and cheaply Karl Marx, “Zur Kritik der (“A Critical Dissertation on the Nature, Measures and Causes of Value: chiefly in reference to the writings of Mr. Ricardo and his followers.” By the author of “Essays on the Formation, &c., of Opinions.” London, , p. ) Search for Georgetown University faculty profiles by name, expertise, or other keywords of interest. Faculty profiles include research, publications, teaching, media appearances, mentorship and more
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